The best way to tackle this question is to have 3 main points
Whats the issue? AO1
Why is this an issue? AO2
What is the implication of it? AO2
Whats the issue? Lack of Inter-Rater Reliability
One issues related to the classification and diagnosis of schizophrenia is reliability. This refers to the consistency of a measuring instrument, such as the DSM or ICD that is used when classifying and diagnosing schizophrenia. Reliability can either be measured in terms of inter-rater reliability, which is the extent to which two or more independent assessors give a similar diagnosis, or in terms of test-retest reliability which is the extent to which the tests used to deliver these diagnoses are consistent over time.
AQA A Psychology Central All tips and tricks to A*
Sunday, 24 August 2014
Thursday, 19 June 2014
Discuss biological therapies for schizophrenia
(8+16) Another one of my weaker essays but can be useful for reference.
AO1 Drugs
AO1 Drugs
Drugs that are
effective in treating most disturbing
forms of psychotic illness, such as schizophrenia, are called antipsychotic
drugs. There are convention antipsychotics and atypical antipsychotic drugs.
The basic mechanism of conventional antipsychotic drugs is to reduce the
effects of dopamine and so
Discuss biological explanations into schizophrenia.
(8+16)
AO1 Dopamine hypothesis
Dopamine
is one the many different neurotransmitters that operate in the brain. The
dopamine hypothesis states that messages from neurons that transmit dopamine,
fire too easily or too often, leading to the characteristic symptoms of
schizophrenia. For example over activity in the basal ganglia
Discuss ONE psychological therapies for schizophrenia (4+8)
(4+8)
AO1
AO1
One
of these therapies is CBT, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. The main assumption
of this therapy is that patients have distorted beliefs that influence their
behaviour in maladaptive ways. Delusions are thought to arise from faulty
interpretations of events and CBT aims to correct these. In CBT, a patient is
Discuss PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA
(8+16)
AO1
Many psychologists propose
psychological explanations for schizophrenia. One of these explanations is that
the disorder may be caused by a cognitive deficit. This theory explains
schizophrenia as attention impairment, suggesting that it is caused by a defect
in the patient’s ability to filter incoming information. This means that they
are inundated by external stimuli, which they interpret
Cross Cultural influences into gender.
(8+16)
AO1
One aspect of gender role that appears to be universal is the division
of labour. In most cultures, men hunt and otherwise provide resources while
women look after children & prepare food. Munroe & Munroe found in a
cross-cultural study that every society has some division of labour between genders.
This universality suggests that gender roles are biological rather than
cultural.
Discuss evolutionary explanations of gender roles.
(8+16)
AO1 Mate strategies
Evolutionary
psychologists suggest that there are differences between men and women as they
are subject to different selective pressures. Males do well
to mate as frequently as they can and select women who are more fertile (young)
and healthy - smooth skin, glossy hair, red lips and thin waist
Discuss social influences on gender roles
(8+16)
AO1 Parents
Parents may teach their children about gender
related behaviour through operant conditioning. Behaviours which produce
positive consequence such as compliments or attention are more likely to be
repeated than those that produce negative consequences. Social learning
suggests neat parented
Discuss psychological explanations of gender development (Gender Schema Theory)
(8+16)
AO1
Created by Martin and Halverson, gender schema
theory addresses the main issue with Kohlberg’s theory, which is that sex-typed
behaviour emerges long before gender constancy. Gender Schema theory suggests
that gender identity alone provides children provides children with the
motivation to assume sex-typed behaviour patterns.
Discuss explanations into Gender dysphoria. (Psychological & Biological)
(8+16)
PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
AO1 Mental illness
A number of psychologists have
proposed that gender dysphoria is related to mental illness, which in turn is
linked to some childhood trauma or maladaptive upbringing. For example, Coates et al. (1991)
produced a case history of a boy who developed GID, proposing that this was a
defensive reaction to the boy's mother's depression following an abortion. The
trauma occurred when the boy was three, a time in development when a child is
particularly sensitive to gender issues. Coates et al. suggest that the
trauma may have led to a cross-gender, fantasy as a means of resolving the
ensuing anxiety.
Discuss the role of genes and hormones in gender development.
(8+16 marks)
AO1 Genetics
AO1 Genetics
The
role of genetics in the role of gender development can be seen during the first
six weeks, there are no structural differences between the embryos of those who
are genetically female (XX) and those who are genetically male (XY). Six weeks
after conception when sexual differentiation should occur, the genes determine
whether their gonadal ridges become testes or ovaries. Fetal hormones specific
to the sex chromosomes of an individual are produced at this time, where the Y
chromosome of males initiates the synthesis of H-Y antigen, a protein that
leads the gonadal ridges to grow into testes. If such antigen is injected into
a female fetus at six weeks then a genetic female with male testes will result.
Alternatively if drugs preventing H-Y from functioning are injected into a
genetic male, they will be born with ovaries.
Discuss the Biosocial approach.
(8+16) This is not one of my strongest essays, so you might want to include more. (Sorry)
AO1
The biosocial explanation of gender
was advanced by Money and Ehrhardt, who proposed that once a
biological male or female is born, social labeling and differential treatment
of boys and girls interact with biological factors to steer development. This theory was an attempt to integrate the influences of nature and nurture. Essentially they argued that
it is sex
of rearing that is the pivotal point in gender development. Biology is likely
to determine sex of rearing as a baby is sexed at birth and everything else
follows from that. However, as we have seen, some individuals are intersexes
and may be mistyped at birth. Money and Ehrhardt predicted that, if a
genetic male is mislabeled as a girl and treated as a girl before the
age of three, he would acquire the gender identity of a girl. Thus the key to
gender development, according to Money and Ehrhardt, is the label that a person
is given.
DISCUSS SUCCESS AND FAILURES OF EATING.
(8+16)
AO1 Restraint Theory-Failure
Restraint theory proposed by Herman and
Mack suggest that attempting not to eat actually increases the probability of
overeating, which is why many diets fail. In an attempt to explain why dieting
may to overeating, Herman and Mack developed the boundary model. According to
this model, hunger keeps intake of food above a certain minimum and satiety
works to keep intake below some maximum level. Between these two level,
psychological factors have the greatest impact on consumption. According to this
model, dieters have a larger range between their hunger and satiety levels, so
it takes them longer to feel hungry and more food to feel satisfied. Dieters
also have a self imposed desirable level of food intake. When they perceive
themselves as going beyond this level they experience the disinhibition effect
and continue to eat until satisfied. They are more likely to go over this
level. If they have eaten something forbidden like cake.
ATTITUDES TO FOODS AND FACTORS
(8+16)
AO1 Parents
As children’s parents usually provide for
them, it seems obvious that parental attitudes to food will affect their
children’s attitudes toward the food too. This can be explained by SLT. This
occurs when children observe their parents eating. In this sense the parents
act as eating role model. Observing parents getting rewarded by enjoying eating
certain foods, the children earn to imitate these food preferences as they
expect to receive similar rewards by doing so. This theory would therefore
argue that children should show similar preferences from them through a process
of vicarious learning.
Discuss neural mechanisms involved in eating behaviour.
(8+16)
AO1 Dual Centre Hypothesis
The dual centre hypothesis suggests that eating
behaviour is controlled via a homeostatic system whereby neural mechanisms play
a key role. The hypothalamus is the main area of the brain that regulates
eating. The lateral hypothalamus (LH) acts as the ‘hunger centre’ and is
triggered by falling blood glucose levels and rising ghrelin levels (a hormone
released when the stomach is empty). The Ventro-medial hypothalamus (VMH) acts
as the satiety centre and is triggered by falling levels of ghrelin, rising
levels of CCK (a hormone released when the food is detected in the duodenum)
and rising levels of leptin. Neuropeptide Y is thought to be associated with
the initiation of eating. Dopamine may be relevant to eating behaviour in that
it is commonly associated with the reward pathway in the brain. When dopamine
is released in response to eating, it is likely to provide positive feelings
for an individual. This is likely to be associated with eating and thus eating
becomes a pleasurable experience.
Discuss evolutionary explanations for food preferences.
(8+16)
AO1 Bitter Taste
An example of an evolved food preference is
that the experience of bitter taste has evolved to detect potentially harmful
toxins in plants. Sandell and Breslin (2006) screened 35 adults for the bitter
taste receptor gene. Those with the sensitive form of this gene were more
likely to experience toxic glucoseinolates as bitter, which would explain why
such genes are widespread In modern times.
Discuss PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF AN.
(8+16)
AO1 Media
AO1 Media
The media has been regarded as an
explanation for anorexia nervosa. The media are a major source of influence for
body image attitudes maintained by western adolescents. For example the
portrayal of thin models on television and in magazines acts as a ‘model’ for
adolescent girls in which they become concerned with body image and ‘thinness’
in order to imitate these models. The media however does not influence everyone
in the same way for example individuals with low self esteem are more likely to
compare themselves to idealised images portrayed in the media says Jones and
Buckingham.
Discuss Biological explanations of Anorexia Nervosa.
(8+16)
AO1 AFFH
AO1 AFFH
An attempt at explaining anorexia nervosa (AN) has been
explained by Guisinger’s (2003) adapted to flee famine hypothesis (AFFH). AFFH
fits under the evolutionary approach, but is also a biological explanation.
Guisinger proposes that AN is part of behaviours adaptive in the environment of
the evolutionary adaptation (EEA). In hunter-gatherer society, there would have
been prolonged periods of famine and it would have been necessary to move on
regularly when food resources were exhausted. To cope with this, people would
have keep active despite lack of energy. Guisinger draws a parallel with
anorexics, who tend to have high activity levels and restlessness, despite the
typical response to starvation being inactivity and depression. Therefore, she
hypothesised, high levels of activity and a denial of hunger, necessary to
migrate in times of famine, and are explanation of AN today.
Discuss the role of genetics into aggression.
(8+16)
AO1 Twin Studies
AO1 Twin Studies
Monozygotic (MZ) twins share all of
their genetic information whilst dizygotic twins (DZ) share 50%. If MZ twins
are more alike in terms of aggressive behaviour than DZ twins, then this should
be due to genes rather than environment. It is much harder to study aggressive
behaviour than criminal behaviour, so few studies have tried to measure
aggressive behaviour directly. However, Coccaro did use twins to study
aggressive behaviour and found that 50% of the aggression towards to each other
could be attributed to genetic factors.
Discuss explanations into Institutional Aggression (Social psychological explanations)
(8+16)
AO1 Importation Model
One explanation of institutional aggression
comes from Irwin and Cressey and the importation model. Irwin and Cressey claim
that inmates who enter prison with particular characteristics e.g. values,
attitudes and experiences, are more likely to engage in interpersonal violence
than other inmates. According to this theory, interpersonal violence in prisons
is not a product of the institution itself but rather of the characteristics of
individuals who enter such institutions. Younger inmates are more likely to
view violence as an appropriate response to conflicts. Research has shown that
inmates who are from impoverished communities with higher rates of violence in
those areas are more associated with interpersonal violence thus they are
importing their cultural norms into the prison that condones violence t
behaviour.
Discuss Evolutionary explanations of group displays. e.g. sport and warfare
(8+16)
AO1 Xenophobia (Sport)
AO1 Xenophobia (Sport)
One explanation of group displays in humans
is from Wilson who claims that xenophobia has been documented in every group of
animals displaying higher forms of social organization. Natural selection, it
appears has favoured those genes that caused human beings to be altruistic
toward members of their own group but intolerant towards outside members. Shaw
and Wong argue that mechanisms that prompt suspicion towards strangers would
have been favoured by natural selection. This would have enabled our ancestors
to avoid attack and so leave behind more offspring. MacDonald suggests that fro
an evolutionary perspective, it is adaptive to exaggerate negative stereotypes
about outsiders, as the overperception is less costly than under perception.
Discuss Evolutionary explanations of aggression.
(8+16)
AO1 Cuckoldry& Mate retention strategies
AO1 Cuckoldry& Mate retention strategies
Evolutionary psychologists argue that
reproductive challenged faced by our ancestors can explain aggressive
behaviour. A man can never be certain that he is the father of his wife’s child
unless he prevents her from having relationships with any other men. This can
explain why male sexual jealousy is often cited as a cause of domestic
violence. Subsequently if a man’s partner is unfaithful and has a relationship
with another man, the man runs the risk of cuckoldry and would therefore invest
resources into rearing children. Male sexual jealous may therefore have evolve
to prevent infidelity and reduce the risk of cuckoldry.
Discuss social psycological explanations of aggression (SLT & Deindividuation)
(8+16)
AO1 Deindividuation
The
deindividuation explanation states that people normally refrain from acting in
an aggressive and antisocial manner, in part because they are easily
identifiable and because they belong to societies that have strong norms
against such behaviour. In a situation, which has crowds, restraints on
aggressive behaviour may become relaxed. According to Zimbardo being part of a
large crowd can diminish awareness of individuality because individuals are
faceless and anonymous. There is less
fear of a retribution and a diluted sense of guilt.
Describe and evaluate neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression.
(8 marks + 16 marks) Plenty of AO1 and AO2 to choose from.
AO1 Serotonin
Serotonin plays an important role in social decision making by keeping aggressive social responses in check. Serotonin usually reduces aggression by inhibiting the firing of the amygdala, which might otherwise lead to impulsive or aggressive behaviour. If there are low levels of serotonin in the brain, there is less inhibition of the amygdala. As a result, when it is stimulated by external events, it becomes more active, causing the person to act on their impulses, and making aggression more likely. Therefore, low levels of serotonin have been associated with an increased susceptibility to impulsive and aggressive behaviour.
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