Issues surrounding the classification and diagnosis of schizophrenia- Reliability and Validity

The best way to tackle this question is to have 3 main points
Whats the issue? AO1
Why is this an issue? AO2
What is the implication of it? AO2

Whats the issue? Lack of Inter-Rater Reliability

One issues related to the classification and diagnosis of schizophrenia is reliability. This refers to the consistency of a measuring instrument, such as the DSM or ICD that is used when classifying and diagnosing schizophrenia. Reliability can either be measured in terms of inter-rater reliability, which is the extent to which two or more independent assessors give a similar diagnosis, or in terms of test-retest reliability which is the extent to which the tests used to deliver these diagnoses are consistent over time.

Discuss biological therapies for schizophrenia

(8+16) Another one of my weaker essays but can be useful for reference.

AO1 Drugs

Drugs that are effective in  treating most disturbing forms of psychotic illness, such as schizophrenia, are called antipsychotic drugs. There are convention antipsychotics and atypical antipsychotic drugs. The basic mechanism of conventional antipsychotic drugs is to reduce the effects of dopamine and so

Discuss biological explanations into schizophrenia.

(8+16)

AO1 Dopamine hypothesis

Dopamine is one the many different neurotransmitters that operate in the brain. The dopamine hypothesis states that messages from neurons that transmit dopamine, fire too easily or too often, leading to the characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia. For example over activity in the basal ganglia

Discuss ONE psychological therapies for schizophrenia (4+8)

(4+8)
AO1

One of these therapies is CBT, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. The main assumption of this therapy is that patients have distorted beliefs that influence their behaviour in maladaptive ways. Delusions are thought to arise from faulty interpretations of events and CBT aims to correct these. In CBT, a patient is

Discuss PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

(8+16)

AO1

Many psychologists propose psychological explanations for schizophrenia. One of these explanations is that the disorder may be caused by a cognitive deficit. This theory explains schizophrenia as attention impairment, suggesting that it is caused by a defect in the patient’s ability to filter incoming information. This means that they are inundated by external stimuli, which they interpret

Cross Cultural influences into gender.

(8+16)

AO1

One aspect of gender role that appears to be universal is the division of labour. In most cultures, men hunt and otherwise provide resources while women look after children & prepare food. Munroe & Munroe found in a cross-cultural study that every society has some division of labour between genders. This universality suggests that gender roles are biological rather than cultural.

Discuss evolutionary explanations of gender roles.

(8+16)

AO1 Mate strategies

Evolutionary psychologists suggest that there are differences between men and women as they are subject to different selective pressures. Males do well to mate as frequently as they can and select women who are more fertile (young) and healthy - smooth skin, glossy hair, red lips and thin waist

Discuss social influences on gender roles

(8+16)

AO1 Parents

Parents may teach their children about gender related behaviour through operant conditioning. Behaviours which produce positive consequence such as compliments or attention are more likely to be repeated than those that produce negative consequences. Social learning suggests neat parented

Discuss psychological explanations of gender development (Gender Schema Theory)

(8+16)

AO1

Created by Martin and Halverson, gender schema theory addresses the main issue with Kohlberg’s theory, which is that sex-typed behaviour emerges long before gender constancy. Gender Schema theory suggests that gender identity alone provides children provides children with the motivation to assume sex-typed behaviour patterns. 

Discuss explanations into Gender dysphoria. (Psychological & Biological)

(8+16)

PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS

AO1  Mental illness 

A number of psychologists have proposed that gender dysphoria is related to mental illness, which in turn is linked to some childhood trauma or maladaptive upbringing. For example, Coates et al. (1991) produced a case history of a boy who developed GID, proposing that this was a defensive reaction to the boy's mother's depression following an abortion. The trauma occurred when the boy was three, a time in development when a child is particularly sensitive to gender issues. Coates et al. suggest that the trauma may have led to a cross-gender, fantasy as a means of resolving the ensuing anxiety.

Discuss the role of genes and hormones in gender development.

(8+16 marks)


AO1 Genetics

The role of genetics in the role of gender development can be seen during the first six weeks, there are no structural differences between the embryos of those who are genetically female (XX) and those who are genetically male (XY). Six weeks after conception when sexual differentiation should occur, the genes determine whether their gonadal ridges become testes or ovaries. Fetal hormones specific to the sex chromosomes of an individual are produced at this time, where the Y chromosome of males initiates the synthesis of H-Y antigen, a protein that leads the gonadal ridges to grow into testes. If such antigen is injected into a female fetus at six weeks then a genetic female with male testes will result. Alternatively if drugs preventing H-Y from functioning are injected into a genetic male, they will be born with ovaries.

Discuss the Biosocial approach.

(8+16) This is not one of my strongest essays, so you might want to include more. (Sorry)

AO1

The biosocial explanation of gender was advanced by Money and Ehrhardt, who proposed that once a biological male or female is born, social labeling and differential treatment of boys and girls interact with biological factors to steer development. This theory was an attempt to integrate the influences of nature and nurture. Essentially they argued that
it is sex of rearing that is the pivotal point in gender development. Biology is likely to determine sex of rearing as a baby is sexed at birth and everything else follows from that. However, as we have seen, some individuals are intersexes and may be mistyped at birth. Money and Ehrhardt predicted that, if a genetic male is mislabeled as a girl and treated as a girl before the age of three, he would acquire the gender identity of a girl. Thus the key to gender development, according to Money and Ehrhardt, is the label that a person is given.

DISCUSS SUCCESS AND FAILURES OF EATING.

(8+16) 

AO1 Restraint Theory-Failure

­­Restraint theory proposed by Herman and Mack suggest that attempting not to eat actually increases the probability of overeating, which is why many diets fail. In an attempt to explain why dieting may to overeating, Herman and Mack developed the boundary model. According to this model, hunger keeps intake of food above a certain minimum and satiety works to keep intake below some maximum level. Between these two level, psychological factors have the greatest impact on consumption. According to this model, dieters have a larger range between their hunger and satiety levels, so it takes them longer to feel hungry and more food to feel satisfied. Dieters also have a self imposed desirable level of food intake. When they perceive themselves as going beyond this level they experience the disinhibition effect and continue to eat until satisfied. They are more likely to go over this level. If they have eaten something forbidden like cake.

ATTITUDES TO FOODS AND FACTORS

(8+16)

AO1 Parents

As children’s parents usually provide for them, it seems obvious that parental attitudes to food will affect their children’s attitudes toward the food too. This can be explained by SLT. This occurs when children observe their parents eating. In this sense the parents act as eating role model. Observing parents getting rewarded by enjoying eating certain foods, the children earn to imitate these food preferences as they expect to receive similar rewards by doing so. This theory would therefore argue that children should show similar preferences from them through a process of vicarious learning.

Discuss neural mechanisms involved in eating behaviour.

(8+16)

AO1 Dual Centre Hypothesis

The dual centre hypothesis suggests that eating behaviour is controlled via a homeostatic system whereby neural mechanisms play a key role. The hypothalamus is the main area of the brain that regulates eating. The lateral hypothalamus (LH) acts as the ‘hunger centre’ and is triggered by falling blood glucose levels and rising ghrelin levels (a hormone released when the stomach is empty). The Ventro-medial hypothalamus (VMH) acts as the satiety centre and is triggered by falling levels of ghrelin, rising levels of CCK (a hormone released when the food is detected in the duodenum) and rising levels of leptin. Neuropeptide Y is thought to be associated with the initiation of eating. Dopamine may be relevant to eating behaviour in that it is commonly associated with the reward pathway in the brain. When dopamine is released in response to eating, it is likely to provide positive feelings for an individual. This is likely to be associated with eating and thus eating becomes a pleasurable experience.

Discuss evolutionary explanations for food preferences.

(8+16)

AO1 Bitter Taste

An example of an evolved food preference is that the experience of bitter taste has evolved to detect potentially harmful toxins in plants. Sandell and Breslin (2006) screened 35 adults for the bitter taste receptor gene. Those with the sensitive form of this gene were more likely to experience toxic glucoseinolates as bitter, which would explain why such genes are widespread In modern times.

Discuss PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF AN.

(8+16)

AO1 Media 

The media has been regarded as an explanation for anorexia nervosa. The media are a major source of influence for body image attitudes maintained by western adolescents. For example the portrayal of thin models on television and in magazines acts as a ‘model’ for adolescent girls in which they become concerned with body image and ‘thinness’ in order to imitate these models. The media however does not influence everyone in the same way for example individuals with low self esteem are more likely to compare themselves to idealised images portrayed in the media says Jones and Buckingham.

Discuss Biological explanations of Anorexia Nervosa.

(8+16)

AO1 AFFH

An attempt at explaining anorexia nervosa (AN) has been explained by Guisinger’s (2003) adapted to flee famine hypothesis (AFFH). AFFH fits under the evolutionary approach, but is also a biological explanation. Guisinger proposes that AN is part of behaviours adaptive in the environment of the evolutionary adaptation (EEA). In hunter-gatherer society, there would have been prolonged periods of famine and it would have been necessary to move on regularly when food resources were exhausted. To cope with this, people would have keep active despite lack of energy. Guisinger draws a parallel with anorexics, who tend to have high activity levels and restlessness, despite the typical response to starvation being inactivity and depression. Therefore, she hypothesised, high levels of activity and a denial of hunger, necessary to migrate in times of famine, and are explanation of AN today.

Discuss the role of genetics into aggression.

(8+16)

AO1 Twin Studies

Monozygotic (MZ) twins share all of their genetic information whilst dizygotic twins (DZ) share 50%. If MZ twins are more alike in terms of aggressive behaviour than DZ twins, then this should be due to genes rather than environment. It is much harder to study aggressive behaviour than criminal behaviour, so few studies have tried to measure aggressive behaviour directly. However, Coccaro did use twins to study aggressive behaviour and found that 50% of the aggression towards to each other could be attributed to genetic factors.

Discuss explanations into Institutional Aggression (Social psychological explanations)

(8+16)

AO1 Importation Model

One explanation of institutional aggression comes from Irwin and Cressey and the importation model. Irwin and Cressey claim that inmates who enter prison with particular characteristics e.g. values, attitudes and experiences, are more likely to engage in interpersonal violence than other inmates. According to this theory, interpersonal violence in prisons is not a product of the institution itself but rather of the characteristics of individuals who enter such institutions. Younger inmates are more likely to view violence as an appropriate response to conflicts. Research has shown that inmates who are from impoverished communities with higher rates of violence in those areas are more associated with interpersonal violence thus they are importing their cultural norms into the prison that condones violence t behaviour.

Discuss Evolutionary explanations of group displays. e.g. sport and warfare

(8+16)

AO1 Xenophobia (Sport)

One explanation of group displays in humans is from Wilson who claims that xenophobia has been documented in every group of animals displaying higher forms of social organization. Natural selection, it appears has favoured those genes that caused human beings to be altruistic toward members of their own group but intolerant towards outside members. Shaw and Wong argue that mechanisms that prompt suspicion towards strangers would have been favoured by natural selection. This would have enabled our ancestors to avoid attack and so leave behind more offspring. MacDonald suggests that fro an evolutionary perspective, it is adaptive to exaggerate negative stereotypes about outsiders, as the overperception is less costly than under perception.

Discuss Evolutionary explanations of aggression.

(8+16)

AO1 Cuckoldry& Mate retention strategies

Evolutionary psychologists argue that reproductive challenged faced by our ancestors can explain aggressive behaviour. A man can never be certain that he is the father of his wife’s child unless he prevents her from having relationships with any other men. This can explain why male sexual jealousy is often cited as a cause of domestic violence. Subsequently if a man’s partner is unfaithful and has a relationship with another man, the man runs the risk of cuckoldry and would therefore invest resources into rearing children. Male sexual jealous may therefore have evolve to prevent infidelity and reduce the risk of cuckoldry.

Discuss social psycological explanations of aggression (SLT & Deindividuation)

(8+16)

AO1 Deindividuation

The deindividuation explanation states that people normally refrain from acting in an aggressive and antisocial manner, in part because they are easily identifiable and because they belong to societies that have strong norms against such behaviour. In a situation, which has crowds, restraints on aggressive behaviour may become relaxed. According to Zimbardo being part of a large crowd can diminish awareness of individuality because individuals are faceless and anonymous.  There is less fear of a retribution and a diluted sense of guilt.

Describe and evaluate neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression.

(8 marks + 16 marks) Plenty of AO1 and AO2 to choose from.

AO1 Serotonin

Serotonin plays an important role in social decision making by keeping aggressive social responses in check. Serotonin usually reduces aggression by inhibiting the firing of the amygdala, which might otherwise lead to impulsive or aggressive behaviour. If there are low levels of serotonin in the brain, there is less inhibition of the amygdala. As a result, when it is stimulated by external events, it becomes more active, causing the person to act on their impulses, and making aggression more likely. Therefore, low levels of serotonin have been associated with an increased susceptibility to impulsive and aggressive behaviour.